The Importance Of Photosynthesis

The Importance Of Photosynthesis To understand the importance of photosynthesis, research is conducted to help determine which wavelength of light and light intensity the chloroplast would generate the fastest photosynthetic reaction rate of photosynthesis. In plants, photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplast. The chloroplast absorbs the light energy to convert to chemical energy such as ATP AND NADPH. Photosynthesis is the process of converting carbon dioxide to organic compounds, such as simple sugar, using the energy from sunlight (Smith, A.L.). The chemical reaction equation of photosynthesis is as followed: 6 C02 + 6 H20 + Light Energy → C6H1206 + 6 02 There are a number of limiting factors on the rate of reaction for photosynthesis. However, the purpose for this lab experiment is to measure the light intensity and the wavelength. Light is a form of energy known as electromagnetic energy, also called the electromagnetic radiation (Campbell 190).The most important segment of the visible light is the narrow band range from 380 nm to 750 nm (Campbell 190). Pigments are substance that absorbs the visible light; however, it may be also reflected or transmitted. Different pigments absorb light of different wavelengths (Campbell 190). Light emits a wavelength, the distance between the crest of electromagnetic waves, is inversely related to the amount of the energy: the shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy of each photon of that light (Campbell 190). Chloroplast contains pigment chlorophyll that absorbs the light energy from the sunlight and drive synthesis of organic molecules (Campbell 186). In addition, plants also use other p igment, such as carotenes and xanthophyll, to absorb different wavelength of the light. Chlorophyll absorbs violent-blue and red light while transmitting and reflecting green light, which gives leaf its color. Violent-blue and red light are the most effective color of the light spectrum to conduct photosynthesis, whereas green light is the least effective color (Campbell 192). Photosynthesis starts when the chlorophyll molecules are excited by the absorption of light. The chlorophyll molecules are organized along with other small organic molecules and proteins into photosystem (Campbell 193). The photosystem are composed of a protein complex called a reaction-center complex that is surrounded by several light-harvesting complexes, which contain various pigments that are embedded to the protein. In Photosystem II, light travels through the chloroplast and strikes a pigment molecule in the light harvesting complex. This excites the electron to a higher energy level and fall back down to ground state. As the electron falls back down to its ground state, it stimulate a nearby pigment until this process reaches the reaction center called the P680, a pair of chlorophyll ÃŽ ± molecules in the Photosystem II reaction -center complex. The electron is then transfer to the primary electron-acceptor. As the P680 loses its electron, it is replace by the enzyme catalyze s the splitting of water molecules into two hydrogen ions and  ½ of oxygen in the thylakoids space. The oxygen atom immediately combines with another oxygen atom, forming O2, which was generated from the splitting of another water molecule. The excited electron from the primary electron-acceptor in PS II passes through the electron transport chain to the chlorophyll ÃŽ ± molecules, which is called P700, located in PS I. In the meantime, light energy travels through the light harvesting complex into the P700, which excited the electron, transferring the electron to PS I primary electron-acceptor. These electrons are passed on through electron acceptors that donate the electron to NADP+. The energy release drive the transfer of electron in an oxidation-reduction mechanism in which NADP+ is reduced to NADPH. Involving a redox reaction, oxidation is the loss of electrons from a substance, whereas reduction is the addition of electrons to a substance. The excess of energy from the oxid ation-reduction process provides energy for the synthesis of ATP, which generates a proton gradient across the chloroplast membrane that is used in chemiosmosis. Overall, the light reactions are steps of photosynthesis to convert light energy to chemical energy, such as ATP and NADPH, in order to produce pieces of sugar in the Calvin cycle. In this study, we first separate and identify pigments within plants cells by a process called chromatography. We will also study how several factors quantitatively affect the rate of photosynthesis. The factor that was tested includes the light intensity and wavelength. Thus, we can determine the effectiveness of the different pigments to absorb light to different wavelength and light intensities. The hypotheses are formed as follows: H1: Violent-blue and red light would have a faster photosynthetic rate compared to green light. H2: Light intensity is directly correlated with rate of photosynthesis. H3: Carbon dioxide is directly proportional to the amount of carbon present in the atmosphere. Materials and methods Chromatography is to separate and identify pigment within the plant cell which spinach leaves was use to conduct this experiment. Using a paper chromatography of 14 cm wide by 16cm tall, a pencil line of 2 cm is drawn from the bottom edge of the paper. Then apply the plant extract along the line to within 1 cm of each edge. Allowing the extract to dry each time, this process is repeated 10 times or more to ensure the pigment are on the chromatography. The paper chromatography is stapled into a cylinder at the bare edges and place into chromatography jar that contain a 15 ml solvent of petroleum ether-acetone. The chromatography jar is set under a vented-hood with the jar covered. This will allow the atmosphere inside to be saturated with the solvent. The solvent will move up the paper chromatography and carry the pigments along. Each pigment will move at different rate along the paper. The discrete pigment band will be formed from the front, which is the leading edge of the solvent, to the origin where the pigments were added to the paper. To determine the distance of each discrete pigment band, Rf ratio is used. The Rf is the ratio of the distance a band travels to the distance the front traveled (lab manual). The Rf equation is as follow: After the pigments are separated, each band will be pooled with other group and eluted into 10 cc of acetone. The unknown pigments from the each band are placed in a cuvette and place in a spectrophotometer. Four cuvettes were obtained and label as band 1, 2, 3, and 4. A spectrophotometer is used to measure the percent of each wavelength of light absorbed by the pigment (Campbell 190). Each band is measure at specific wavelength ranging from 400 nm to 680 nm. Thus, each of the bands is identify according to its pigment by comparing its wavelength to the known standard wavelength. To determine at which wavelength of light and at which light intensity the chloroplast would generate the fastest photosynthetic reaction rate of photosynthesis, the floating leaf disk assay is use for this experiment. The wavelength of red, green, and blue light is test to determine the rate of photosynthesis. In addition, the effect of light intensity is determined by the distance of light (white) from the leaves. For each trail, a 0.2% of 300 ml sodium bicarbonate solution (baking soda) is use as an alternate dissolved source of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis by using 1/8 of a teaspoon of baking in a 300 ml of water (lab manual). Then a hole-punch is use to cut out 10 or more uniform leaf disks (avoid major veins). The air space of the leaf disks is infiltrates with the sodium bicarbonate solution, which the solution will cause the leaf disk to sink due to its increase in density. Infiltration of the leaf disks with sodium bicarbonate is as followed: Remove the plunger and place the leaf disk into the syringe barrel. Replace the plunger and slowly push air out while being careful not to crush the leaf. With a small volume of sodium bicarbonate solution into the syringe. Tap syringe to suspend the leaf disks in the solution. While holding a finger over the syringe opening, draw back the plunger to create a vacuum for 10 seconds. In addition, swirl the leaf disks to suspend them in the solution. This procedure may be repeated 2-3 times in order to get the leaf disk to sink. After the leaf disks sink, pour the disk and the solution into a clear cup or beaker. A constant volume of bicarbonate solution is added and should be the same depth for each trail. Place the cup or beaker under the light source and start the timer. Each minute is to record the number of floating disk. In addition, dislodge any disks stuck against the sides of the cup by swirling the disks. Continue until all of the leaf disks are floating. In addition, the presence of CO2 is measured.

Glasses or No Glasses? :: Personal Narrative Writing

Glasses or No Glasses? â€Å"So, glasses or no glasses?† I’m trolling the hallway, nabbing every student I can find. My senior portrait sitting is tomorrow and I can’t decide: Glasses or no glasses? Maybe other people can give me their opinions. â€Å"Um, I think glasses,† said one of my neighbors, â€Å"but then again, Michael, you should know that I like it more when people wear glasses as a general rule.† â€Å"No glasses would be better,† said another. â€Å"Glasses, definitely. You have small eyes.† â€Å"No, no glasses I think.† So it went on and on. And on. Then finally, an interesting tidbit of advice: â€Å"So I think you should wear whatever you feel most comfortable in; whatever best reflects who you are—I mean, do you often wear glasses or not?† Ah, but there’s the rub. Sometimes I wear them, sometimes I don’t. I wear glasses when I read, because contacts dry out my eyes too fast. I wear glasses when I relax, or when I take a shower. On the other hand, I wear contacts when I play sports or get a haircut. So I guess my problem is simply this: I’m both glasses and no glasses. Now if a friend of mine were here, he would probably roll his eyes and say something along the lines of, â€Å"You know, glasses or no glasses doesn’t really matter. They’re only the superficial part of you. What’s really you is deep inside, and that part of you is the most important part. Glasses or no glasses, that part will shine through.† But see, that’s just the same problem right there, except it’s reworded to sound wiser. Do glasses not matter at all to the â€Å"real† me—to who I am?

Genetically Modified/Engineered Foods Essay

Genetically modified food products first emerged in the commercial markets some time around the mid 1990s and were a hot topic among producers and potential buyers alike. A decade has passed ever since and the debate around genetically engineered foods shows no signs of retreat. Initially, there was much enthusiasm to these foods due to the many advantages expected from these modified food crops, such as resistance to pests and the use of herbicides for the control of weed production in addition to the high nutritional value. Proponents of this new technology of food production were confident that its employment would yield extremely positive results including improved crop yield, agrochemical use and the production of highly nutritious food crops even in nutritionally drained soils. However, as time elapsed, research and study began to be conducted on these foods and it was soon brought to light that these foods are not safe for consumption, resulting in a backlash against the use of these foods. Opponents argue that the dangers associated with genetically engineered foods far outweigh the few benefits. The methods of production of foods due to gene slicing biotechnological are new and hence, the products obtained from them cannot be appropriately tested by the old methods. There is also a growing concern that genetically modified foods would create a monopoly of food supply in the hands of a few large companies which would cause tremendous harm to smaller farmers and agriculture businesses. The matter has become a political issue in many countries due to this fast, which has the power to influence the lives of millions of farmers across developed countries. The paper attempts to analyze both sides of the argument by highlighting some of the advantages and disadvantages of genetically modified foods. The primary worry is of course the danger and risk to the original composition of crops which would be substantially modified by the new techniques. The debate regarding genetically modified or engineered foods is getting more serious as there are numerous concerns regarding the environmental and health risks of food produced from this new technology. The primary causes of problems are believed to rise due to the antibiotic resistant genes used in the crops which are altered and modified. The production process also includes increased use of pesticides while planting the many varieties of modified plants (CFS 2000, 2004). Some authors have stated that genetic modification of foods is the new technology in agriculture which is â€Å"here to stay† (Schmidt 2005) ignoring the possibility of allergens which have the potential of triggering allergies in people due to the consumption of genetically engineered species of crops and agricultural products is a cause of concern. The growing episodes of food contamination prove that genetically modified foods are not absolutely safe to consume. The contamination of food due to the altered species of corn termed as ‘Starlink’ was the cause of contamination in numerous food products and due to which the company Aventis had to suffer huge losses to pay one hundred and ten million dollars in order to compensate the losses of farmers, food processors and grain handlers (Harl 2003; Jacobs 2003). There have been other contamination incidents which have resulted in severe health and financial problems to the biotech industry. Gillis (2002), Nichols (2002), and Greenpeace (2005). Besides, researchers are apprehensive of the testing methods of the FDA due to the alterations in the composition of these modified foods which subsequently results in changes of â€Å"toxicological, immunological, or nutritional concern† (Schenkelaars, 2002). The testing techniques of genetically modified foods by the FDA has attracted severe criticism for by top level scientists who are opposed to the process of gene alteration in food production and agriculture (Alliance for Biointegrity 2004). The general public too is apprehensive over the techniques used in the manufacture and production of genetically engineered foods (Schmidt, 2005). Schmidt (2005) explains that biotechnology enables scientists to employ methods for combination of genes from unrelated species of plants, animals and microorganisms for which many methods are used. The genes can be artificially combined using natural techniques to allow bacterial and viruses to â€Å"penetrate cells† or electric shocks â€Å"to destabilize the cell membranes† which would help in making the cell membranes â€Å"permeable†. All these artificial techniques facilitate the permeability of the cell membrane which otherwise evades the entry of any foreign genes or DNA from entering the original structure of the cell (Schmidt, 2005). Genetic engineering would mean going against nature for the creation of new substances, the validity of which remains an unanswered question. What is worse is the fact that the natural boundaries of the entire animal and plant kingdom will be at potential risk, since genetic engineering provides scientists with the ability to combine the genes of any existence on the face of the earth. The gene of a potato can be combined with the gene of a fish by introducing the former into the latter or vice versa. This scientific manipulation of foods is a growing concern among many scientists who feel that genetic alteration by humans can increase the levels of natural toxins in plants or allergens in foods. Genetic modification also increases the potential to enable plants and natural foods of â€Å"switching on genes that produce poison† (Shan, 2006). Other dangers of engineered foods include â€Å"antibiotic resistance† among foods, â€Å"increased pesticide residues†, â€Å"genetic pollution† and damage to soil fertility and the beneficial insects which would all subsequently cause â€Å"socio-economic hazards and ethical hazards to the entire human community† (Cummins 1999). Additionally, injection of chemical hormones like the IGF-1 in animals such as the cow increases the risk of serious diseases like cancers of the breast, colon and the prostate among consumers (Cummins 1999). Proponents of genetically engineered foods argue that these foods grown without the use of chemical additives are â€Å"superior†. The addition of food colors such as Para Red and Sudan III to naturally grown foods have resulted in several hazardous incidents as reported by the BBC News (2005) and since genetically produced foods are grown and stored without the use pesticides or fertilizers and any kind of artificial additives, supporters advocate its use. Reports regarding the growing cases of diseases such as asthma (Salam et al 2004), cancers (Muir 2005) and other harmful diseases caused due to farming techniques and pollution is a prime concern to the proponents of genetically modified foods. Heaton (2001) affirms the many health problems which occur due to the growing use of pesticides in natural foods including hormone disturbances, repression of the human immune system and other neurological damages. The chemicals used as pesticides in naturally produced foods include the likes of DDT which has been banned by most of the developed nations, and others such as lindane and astrazine (Shan, 2006). The pesticide residues such as organophosphates found in foods have been associated with hazardous effects such as reduced male fertility, cancer, abnormalities of the fetus, and even Parkinson’s disease (BMA 1992 and Robbins 1991). Additionally, high exposures of the farmers to pesticides have also enormously increased the risks of these farmers to cancers and other harmful diseases associated with them. (Schreinemachers, 2000; Alavanja et al. ,2003). Nutritionally too, genetically modified foods are believed to fare better than their natural counterparts. Research confirms that the nutritional value of genetically modified and grown foods is more than naturally grown foods. Worthington (2001) affirms that organic crops contain far more vitamins, minerals and other nutrients which are beneficial for the functioning of a healthy body. Besides, organic foods are believed to contain much less percentages of nitrates than naturally produced foods (Williams, 2002). The report by the Soil Association compares the nutritional value of genetically modified foods and naturally produced foods (Heaton 2001). Since many food products contain less water, which is why they shrink on storage, genetic engineering of foods tends to alter the structure of the plants so that the ability to retain more water in increased. This would also prevent the food from shrinking on being cooked. Genetic farming and modification of foods also restrict the use of drugs, especially in animals which reduces the risk of infections to humans. Besides, genetically engineered foods and products have higher levels of flavonoids, which act as a natural defense mechanism against the pests feeding on them (Shan, 2006). Flavonoids also play a crucial role in the prevention of cardiac problems and fatal diseases such as cancer. These foods also tend to have greater ant oxidation properties, due to the antioxidants like lycopene and phyto-nutrients like tannins present in them (Shan, 2006). Genetically modified foods have been an issue of debate over the possible advantages and disadvantages they may have on the health of humans. Thus, while it is important to adopt new technologies and procedures to better human life, the health and quality should not be compromised. It is the responsibility of regulatory authorities to adopt means and measures for appropriate testing of foods so that the general public gets maximum benefits from advancing technological processes without having to compromise health and wellbeing.

Susan B. Anthony and the Fight For Equality Essay

Susan was born in 1820 in New England, she was born into a Quaker family, which Cenegage learning states that her religious background and upbringing played a crucial role in her impact on womans suffrage, and her eventual discontent with christianity in America. The Quakers, who believe in equality and an â€Å"inner light† within everyone, instilled the idea into Susan that equality was essential, which could predict her future role in things such as the women’s rights movement, abolitionist movement, and the temperance movement. As Susan moved through her life she partook in many movements, but also switched religions three times, from Quaker, Unitarianism, and eventually and agonistic. Before becoming involved with reform, Anthony was a†¦show more content†¦As a result, she formed the Daughters of Temperance, the first women’s temperance group. (Gale-Cenegage) Not only was she a temperance leader, but also a writer. She wrote in a women-owned newspap er called Lily, informing the people of New York about the temperance movement. Through her involvement, she met people involved in the abolitionist and womens suffrage movement. (Gale-Cenegage) After the Seneca Falls Convention, Susan was introduced to Elizabeth Caty Stanton and Amelia Bloomer, together with these women she formed the first women’s state temperance society in 1852. A year later, she attended her first women’s rights convention, and after this decided to dedicate her life to to the women’s suffrage movement. After this commitment was made, Anthony and Stanton traveled the United States giving speeches urging the equal treatment of women in laws and society. She also became more involved in abolitionism, in 1856 she became an agent for the American Anti-Slavery Society, led by William Lloyd Garrison, but soon decided that women’s suffrage was more important. 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